College ROI

Smarter Choices, Brighter Futures
Back to Colleges

Washington State University

Pullman, WA 21,099 Undergrads 66.0% Grad Rate
Share
Total Cost
$27,914
Sticker Price
Avg Net Price
$13,462
After Aid
Median Earnings
$75,826
5yr Post-Grad

Vs. Peer Institutions

Net Price$13,462
Peer Midpoint: $19,969
Earnings (5yr Post-Grad)Completers only after graduation
$75,826
Peer Midpoint: $61,632
Earnings (10yr Post-Enroll)All enrolled after enrollment
$72,280
Peer Midpoint: $58,891
Graduation Rate66.0%
Peer Midpoint: 58.9%
Average starting age (2015-17)22.7
Socio-Economic Diversity
Pell Grant Recipients31.6%
Enrollment Status
Full-Time89.8%
Economic Outcomes
Earn More than HS79.7%

Admissions Profile

Acceptance
86.6%
SAT Avg
-
SAT Reading
25th: --75th: -
SAT Math
25th: --75th: -
ACT Composite
25th: --75th: -

ROI Sensitivity Analysis
Assuming 4 Years to Graduation

This analysis tests three cost scenarios (Scholarship, Average Net Price, Full Sticker Price) to show how college costs impact your long-term return compared to the average student and a high school graduate.

Lifetime Value Added (NPV)

Institution Lifetime NPV
Vs Median Peer
Vs HS Grad
Zero Cost (Scholarship)$0
+$651k
+$181k
+$165k
Median Cost$13k/yr
+$603k
+$133k
+$116k
Full Cost$28k/yr
+$551k
+$81k
+$64k

ROI Efficiency Metrics

Break-Even Age
Return on Inv. %
Zero Cost (Scholarship)$0
29
∞
Median Cost$13k/yr
34
240%
Full Cost$28k/yr
42
64%
Analysis Assumptions:
  • Starting Salary: Estimated from the median earnings five years after graduating, with four years of 2% raises taken out.
  • Comparisons: "Vs Median Peer" compares to the median student nationwide in a similar level program. "Vs HS Grad" compares to a median high school graduate.
  • Break-Even: The age at which the college investment net income exceeds the median high school graduate's lifetime earnings.
  • NPV: Net Present Value of all future earnings minus costs and taxes, discounted at 7.8%.

Social Impact ROINew

Measures the societal return on a donor's investment. Calculated as the incremental pre-tax lifetime earnings vs. HS grad, divided by the tax-adjusted donation cost.

Donor Return212%

Gov. Pell Grant ROINew

Measures the government's return on Pell Grants via increased tax revenue. Calculated as the portion of incremental lifetime taxes (discounted at 5.4%) attributed to the Pell Grant investment.

Taxpayer Return6%

Program ROI Analysis

These figures are medians for past graduates who received federal aid. Your cost and pay will differ. Run your own numbers in the Guided ROI Interview →

Bachelor's Degrees

Median Debt
$21,477
Earnings (4yr)
$75,980
Natl Median: $76,194
Lifetime Value Added
+$129k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $80,757
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $66,647
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$69,708
Natl Median: $53,588
Lifetime Value Added
+$81k
Median Debt
$25,980
Earnings (4yr)
$58,688
Natl Median: $70,786
Lifetime Value Added
-$7k
Animal Sciences
BachCIP: 0109
Median Debt
$19,767
Earnings (4yr)
$41,634
Natl Median: $49,634
Lifetime Value Added
-$151k
Anthropology
BachCIP: 4502
Median Debt
$15,890
Earnings (4yr)
$42,888
Natl Median: $46,676
Lifetime Value Added
-$140k
Median Debt
$18,471
Earnings (4yr)
$52,765
Natl Median: $57,640
Lifetime Value Added
-$56k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $58,494
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Applied Mathematics
BachCIP: 2703
Median Debt
$19,000
Earnings (4yr)
$70,085
Natl Median: $91,532
Lifetime Value Added
+$84k
Median Debt
$19,557
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $70,074
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Area Studies
BachCIP: 0501
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $56,625
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$21,124
Earnings (5yr)
$68,658
Natl Median: $65,466
Lifetime Value Added
+$62k
Median Debt
$22,250
Earnings (4yr)
$68,583
Natl Median: $58,891
Lifetime Value Added
+$72k
Biology, General
BachCIP: 2601
Median Debt
$18,250
Earnings (4yr)
$60,418
Natl Median: $57,214
Lifetime Value Added
+$7k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$42,682
Natl Median: $93,451
Lifetime Value Added
-$127k
Median Debt
$17,750
Earnings (4yr)
$81,321
Natl Median: $68,257
Lifetime Value Added
+$170k
Median Debt
$23,365
Earnings (4yr)
$99,506
Natl Median: $98,158
Lifetime Value Added
+$308k
Chemistry
BachCIP: 4005
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $65,120
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Civil Engineering
BachCIP: 1408
Median Debt
$19,250
Earnings (4yr)
$91,879
Natl Median: $86,517
Lifetime Value Added
+$250k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$62,406
Natl Median: $56,359
Lifetime Value Added
+$23k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$63,052
Natl Median: $58,928
Lifetime Value Added
+$28k
Median Debt
$20,000
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $104,864
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $92,374
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$18,750
Earnings (4yr)
$114,635
Natl Median: $109,015
Lifetime Value Added
+$423k
Computer Science
BachCIP: 1107
Median Debt
$17,222
Earnings (4yr)
$119,686
Natl Median: $107,009
Lifetime Value Added
+$462k
Median Debt
$19,107
Earnings (4yr)
$69,224
Natl Median: $51,490
Lifetime Value Added
+$77k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $51,642
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Economics
BachCIP: 4506
Median Debt
$22,750
Earnings (4yr)
$70,215
Natl Median: $82,686
Lifetime Value Added
+$85k
Median Debt
$15,022
Earnings (4yr)
$104,354
Natl Median: $100,647
Lifetime Value Added
+$345k
Median Debt
$18,880
Earnings (4yr)
$50,745
Natl Median: $48,590
Lifetime Value Added
-$73k
Median Debt
$20,500
Earnings (2yr)
$52,107
Natl Median: $61,027
Lifetime Value Added
-$44k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$56,880
Natl Median: $51,710
Lifetime Value Added
-$22k
Median Debt
$15,500
Earnings (4yr)
$86,012
Natl Median: $83,343
Lifetime Value Added
+$205k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$27,048
Natl Median: $41,367
Lifetime Value Added
-$268k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$68,719
Natl Median: $70,873
Lifetime Value Added
+$73k
Forestry
BachCIP: 0305
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $58,784
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Genetics
BachCIP: 2608
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$34,704
Natl Median: $66,076
Lifetime Value Added
-$199k
Median Debt
$17,250
Earnings (4yr)
$45,002
Natl Median: $60,190
Lifetime Value Added
-$122k
History
BachCIP: 5401
Median Debt
$22,000
Earnings (4yr)
$58,415
Natl Median: $50,680
Lifetime Value Added
-$9k
Median Debt
$15,000
Earnings (4yr)
$66,874
Natl Median: $56,726
Lifetime Value Added
+$59k
Median Debt
$17,377
Earnings (4yr)
$58,834
Natl Median: $48,568
Lifetime Value Added
-$6k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$77,598
Natl Median: $73,201
Lifetime Value Added
+$141k
Journalism
BachCIP: 0904
Median Debt
$20,107
Earnings (4yr)
$58,795
Natl Median: $56,278
Lifetime Value Added
-$6k
Median Debt
$15,100
Earnings (4yr)
$55,403
Natl Median: $53,072
Lifetime Value Added
-$34k
Median Debt
$18,921
Earnings (4yr)
$85,967
Natl Median: $83,290
Lifetime Value Added
+$205k
Marketing
BachCIP: 5214
Median Debt
$19,174
Earnings (4yr)
$76,595
Natl Median: $69,303
Lifetime Value Added
+$134k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$86,145
Natl Median: $91,449
Lifetime Value Added
+$206k
Mathematics
BachCIP: 2701
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $69,562
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$18,574
Earnings (4yr)
$93,971
Natl Median: $92,135
Lifetime Value Added
+$266k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$76,384
Natl Median: $62,582
Lifetime Value Added
+$132k
Music
BachCIP: 5009
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$41,181
Natl Median: $42,892
Lifetime Value Added
-$155k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$34,847
Natl Median: $55,012
Lifetime Value Added
-$197k
Median Debt
$20,500
Earnings (4yr)
$55,687
Natl Median: $62,451
Lifetime Value Added
-$32k
Philosophy
BachCIP: 3801
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $54,455
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Physical Sciences, General
BachCIP: 4001
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $68,944
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Physics
BachCIP: 4008
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $76,786
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$18,500
Earnings (4yr)
$43,876
Natl Median: $62,172
Lifetime Value Added
-$131k
Plant Sciences
BachCIP: 0111
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$73,736
Natl Median: $56,567
Lifetime Value Added
+$101k
Median Debt
$18,785
Earnings (4yr)
$67,264
Natl Median: $63,293
Lifetime Value Added
+$62k
Psychology, General
BachCIP: 4201
Median Debt
$17,750
Earnings (4yr)
$56,681
Natl Median: $50,706
Lifetime Value Added
-$24k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$63,631
Natl Median: $73,721
Lifetime Value Added
+$33k
Median Debt
$17,500
Earnings (4yr)
$67,647
Natl Median: $63,560
Lifetime Value Added
+$65k
Median Debt
$16,490
Earnings (4yr)
$57,956
Natl Median: $50,497
Lifetime Value Added
-$13k
Median Debt
$14,000
Earnings (4yr)
$91,495
Natl Median: $88,910
Lifetime Value Added
+$247k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$36,312
Natl Median: $55,000
Lifetime Value Added
-$184k
Median Debt
$20,495
Earnings (4yr)
$61,617
Natl Median: $53,366
Lifetime Value Added
+$17k
Sociology
BachCIP: 4511
Median Debt
$18,918
Earnings (4yr)
$57,846
Natl Median: $52,657
Lifetime Value Added
-$14k
Sports, Kinesiology, and Physical Education/Fitness
BachCIP: 3105
Median Debt
$21,500
Earnings (4yr)
$60,950
Natl Median: $54,562
Lifetime Value Added
+$11k
Median Debt
$19,999
Earnings (4yr)
$61,304
Natl Median: $47,382
Lifetime Value Added
+$14k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$62,126
Natl Median: $51,389
Lifetime Value Added
+$21k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$25,658
Natl Median: $45,338
Lifetime Value Added
-$281k
Median Debt
$13,370
Earnings (4yr)
$41,888
Natl Median: $44,055
Lifetime Value Added
-$148k

Master's Degrees

Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$61,728
Natl Median: $95,833
Lifetime Value Added
-$99k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$100,333
Natl Median: $61,941
Lifetime Value Added
+$219k
Animal Sciences
MastCIP: 0109
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $75,394
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Anthropology
MastCIP: 4502
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $61,276
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $64,913
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Applied Mathematics
MastCIP: 2703
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $116,060
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$25,756
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $77,466
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Architecture
MastCIP: 0402
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$81,693
Natl Median: $74,139
Lifetime Value Added
+$42k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $80,271
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Biology, General
MastCIP: 2601
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $69,830
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $67,090
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$50,630
Earnings (4yr)
$144,028
Natl Median: $103,485
Lifetime Value Added
+$598k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $115,468
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Chemistry
MastCIP: 4005
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $82,937
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Civil Engineering
MastCIP: 1408
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$71,015
Natl Median: $98,323
Lifetime Value Added
-$12k
Median Debt
$33,699
Earnings (4yr)
$86,450
Natl Median: $71,953
Lifetime Value Added
+$98k
Median Debt
$50,474
Earnings (4yr)
$72,650
Natl Median: $67,030
Lifetime Value Added
-$23k
Computer Science
MastCIP: 1107
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $145,571
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$79,397
Natl Median: $63,399
Lifetime Value Added
+$22k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $70,073
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Economics
MastCIP: 4506
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $100,743
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Education, General
MastCIP: 1301
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$49,436
Natl Median: $65,824
Lifetime Value Added
-$219k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$100,873
Natl Median: $71,685
Lifetime Value Added
+$224k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $133,654
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$155,639
Natl Median: $125,651
Lifetime Value Added
+$698k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$38,289
Natl Median: $55,512
Lifetime Value Added
-$333k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $92,629
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$29,685
Natl Median: $49,079
Lifetime Value Added
-$423k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $88,332
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $79,463
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$94,456
Natl Median: $89,981
Lifetime Value Added
+$168k
History
MastCIP: 5401
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $55,360
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $58,524
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $58,093
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $112,282
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$114,012
Natl Median: $115,974
Lifetime Value Added
+$319k
Music
MastCIP: 5009
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $48,285
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
$77,903
Natl Median: $74,607
Lifetime Value Added
+$23k
Physics
MastCIP: 4008
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $96,478
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$35,783
Earnings (4yr)
$63,925
Natl Median: $67,681
Lifetime Value Added
-$101k
Plant Sciences
MastCIP: 0111
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $70,814
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $78,850
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Psychology, General
MastCIP: 4201
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $64,711
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$117,711
Natl Median: $120,193
Lifetime Value Added
+$351k
Soil Sciences
MastCIP: 0112
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $67,016
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $64,397
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Sports, Kinesiology, and Physical Education/Fitness
MastCIP: 3105
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$63,074
Natl Median: $62,033
Lifetime Value Added
-$121k
Statistics
MastCIP: 2705
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $123,816
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$36,300
Earnings (4yr)
$71,438
Natl Median: $59,916
Lifetime Value Added
-$34k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $65,767
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $119,562
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $60,772
Lifetime Value Added
N/A

Doctoral Degrees

Anthropology
DocCIP: 4502
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$52,107
Natl Median: $77,473
Lifetime Value Added
-$301k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $123,729
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Area Studies
DocCIP: 0501
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $69,249
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $112,683
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Biology, General
DocCIP: 2601
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $92,983
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $82,507
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $113,566
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $141,187
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Chemistry
DocCIP: 4005
Median Debt
-
Earnings (5yr)
$113,091
Natl Median: $115,386
Lifetime Value Added
+$127k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $99,878
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $77,931
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Computer Science
DocCIP: 1107
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $178,476
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Economics
DocCIP: 4506
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $135,560
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$135,393
Natl Median: $100,573
Lifetime Value Added
+$347k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $133,482
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (2yr)
$42,682
Natl Median: $65,831
Lifetime Value Added
-$382k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $107,003
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $92,039
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
History
DocCIP: 5401
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $70,550
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $92,538
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $130,845
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $87,076
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $96,176
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $136,696
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Physics
DocCIP: 4008
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $130,153
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $93,640
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Plant Sciences
DocCIP: 0111
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $90,502
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $90,908
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $98,707
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
$71,061
Earnings (4yr)
$126,766
Natl Median: $138,131
Lifetime Value Added
+$244k
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $88,768
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Sociology
DocCIP: 4511
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $88,618
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Soil Sciences
DocCIP: 0112
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $81,394
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $85,168
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $135,581
Lifetime Value Added
N/A
Median Debt
-
Earnings (4yr)
-
Natl Median: $77,436
Lifetime Value Added
N/A

Professional Degrees

Median Debt
$153,176
Earnings (4yr)
$143,072
Natl Median: $138,348
Lifetime Value Added
+$364k
Veterinary Medicine
ProfCIP: 0180
Median Debt
$124,090
Earnings (4yr)
$133,556
Natl Median: $131,316
Lifetime Value Added
+$294k

Note: Lifetime Value Added is the Net Present Value (NPV) of estimated career earnings relative to a median high school graduate (for undergraduate programs) or a median bachelor's degree holder (for graduate programs), accounting for this institution's average cost and taxes. Computed over a career to retirement age.

For graduate programs (Master's, Doctoral, etc.), the calculation assumes a starting age of 22 (after undergraduate completion) and does not include the sunk costs of prior degrees. It represents the value added of the graduate decision moving forward. Note that the institution's average undergraduate net price is used as a proxy for annual cost, which may differ from actual graduate tuition. These Lifetime Value Added results for graduate degrees should not be compared with those for Undergraduate Certificates, Associates or Bachelors.

Completers Only: Federal median earnings data strictly reflects outcomes for students who successfully graduated. Students who do not complete their degree typically earn significantly less and face higher risks of debt default.